The main objective of the research project was: to study and evaluate various factors, such as socio-economic conditions, and cultural rituals and beliefs, associated with the use of toilets among ethnic groups in the highland areas of Benguet Province, Northern Philippines.

Specifically, it aimed to answer the following objectives:

1. To identify the existing types of latrines and investigate their usage.
2. To identify the variables affecting latrine use in order to determine those which are impeding their use.
3. To adopt and install an appropriate number of model latrines and monitor their use.
4. To develop, implement and evaluate suitable health education strategies to promote community acceptance and maintenance of the latrines.
5.
The respondents of this research project consisted of 225 or 8.4% of the Kankana-eys at the municipality of Kapangan and 150 or 6.8% of the Ibalois at the muni-cipality of Bokod. An interview schedule was used to gather empirical data. The statistical tools used were frequency counts, percentage, and mean to describe the data. The Chi-square (X²) and the F-test were the inferential statistics used to test the hypotheses.

The contigency coefficient (C) was the correlational statistics used to determine degree of association between variables at 5 and 1% levels of significance.
The following findings were arrived at:

1) General Information
(a) Age. The average age of the heads of families among the Kankana-eys was 43.8 years. While the average age of the heads of families among the Ibalois was 44.66 years.
(b) Educational Attainment. Majority or 74.67% Kankana-eys and 60% Ibalois have only reached or finished elementary education as compared to those who have finished high school and college.
(c) Occupation. There were 88.89% among the Kankans-eys and 71.34% among the Ibalois had farming as their main occupation and source of livelihood.
(d) Annual Income. The average annual income of the Kankana-eys at Kapangan was P1,942.61 or P161.88 monthly. While the average annual income of the Ibalois at Bokod was P1,850.17 or F158.18 monthly. These amounts are realized on farm produce beyond their consumption.
(e) Size of Family. The average size of family among the Kankana-eys interviewed was 4.99 while the average size of family among the Ibalois was 6.34.

(f) Communication Facilities. There were 91.11% Kankana-eys who were interviewed to have radio sets. While there were 84.67% Ibalois who were interviewed have radio sets.

2) Types of Latrines and Their Usage
(a) Types of Latrines. The existing types of latrines the respondents used are the pit-type, water seal, pig system, and any hidden place to defecate. Only 0.89% Kankana-eys and 1.33% used the water seal type of latrine. Among the Kankana-ey group 64 were unaware of the importance of toilet. While 36% among the Ibalois indicated that to have a toilet is last priority among needs.
(b) Usage of Latrines. Two percent (2%) among the Ibalois and 10.22% among the Kankana-eys didn't actually use their toilets. Their reason for not using the toilet was non-availability of water. On the other hand, 88.61% among the Kankana-eys recommended toilet use to others. While the 88.44% Ibalois didn't think recom-mending toilet use to others because each house-hold possessed a toilet but the pit-type.
(c) Preferred Type of Latrine. There were only 152 (67.56%) out of 225 Kankana-eys as compared to 144 (96%) out of 150 Ibalois who preferred the water seal over the pit-type of latrine due to accessibility of water. Those who preferred the water seal chose the sit-type over the squat-type latrine.

3) Factors Affecting Latrine Use
(a) Health Condition. The health condition of the Ibalois was fair. Only 62.67% among the Kankana-eys were with fair health condition and the 37.33% had poor health condition. Majority of both the Kankann-eys and Ibalois used plastic containers for water. Both groups used water for cooking, drinking, washing, cleaning, bathing, and flushing toilet in that order. Water existed since birth according to the Ibalois while it existed since the establishment of their houses according to the Kankana-eys. Only one out of the 225 Kankana-eys and only two out of 150 Ibalois did not believe that water is for good health. Burning, burying and turning into com-post were the major ways of refuse disposal by both groups.
(b) Environmental Factors. The Kankana-eys at Kapangan had observed flies and cockcroaches as most prevalent pests in their surroundings. The Ibalois at Bokod observed flies, bedbugs, and rats as most prevalent pests in their sur-roundings. The pit-type latrine was the infestation breeding places for pests. The piped water and spring are the major source of water for both groups. However, the Kankana-eys found the water sources by word of mouth while the Ibalois discovered their water sources. Majority of the Kankana-eys fetch water from the source because it is clean and sanitary. Likewise, the Ibaloin fetch water from the source because it is clean and near their houses. The approximate distance of water source to the houses of the Kankana-eys was 501 to 1,000 meters. On the other hand the approximate distance of water source to the houses of the Ibalois was between 100 to 500 meters. It took the Ibalois less than 10 minutes to fetch water, round trip, from the source. The Kankana-eys took around 20 to 30 minutes to fetch water round trip, from the source. Both groups like the water sources because they are clean and good for drinking. On the other, a water source is disliked if it becomes dry during the summer according to e Kankana-eys and it is far according to the Ibalois.
(c) Cultural Rituals and Beliefs. All the Kankana-eys believed that cañaos (feast) are done to appease spirits who have been disturbed by latrine cons-truction. Some of them believed that defecating anywhere might disturb unseen spirits and cause illness. This tribe also believed that while defecating they should not roll stone which might hurt unseen spirits. On the other hand, there are still some Ibalois who believe in the "Mamoyon" (wiseman) to be first consulted before building the latrines. They also believed that drainage should not pass through house of unseen spirits, excreta is good for pig food, and col-lected excreta in septic tank are used for ferti-lizer. Likewise, the Ibalois believed that while defecating they should not roll stone which might hurt unseen spirits.

3a) Factors in Relation to Community Acceptance of the Water Seal Sit-type Latrine
(i) Socio-economic Conditions Associated with Types of Latrines. Significant positive relationship was obtained between community acceptance on the types of latrines and the socio-economic condi-tions of the Kankana-eys. On the other hand, positive but not significant relationship was obtained between community acceptance on the types of latrines and the socio-economic condi-tions of the Ibalois.
(ii) Cultural Rituals and Beliefs Associated with Proper Usage of Latrines. Highly significant relationships were obtained between community acceptance on the proper usage of latrine and the cultural rituals and beliefs of both the Kankana-eys and the Ibalois.

4) Installation of Model Latrines and Monitoring Their Une
(a) Domonstration on the Construction and Installa-tion of the Model Latrines. The actual demons-trations and lectures were conducted by the research team. The indigenous materials for the toilet houses they used in Kapangan are the sticks, bamboos, and cogon. See Figures next page. In Bokod the indigenous materials they used were cogon, small bamboos, and extra gal-vanized zinc. The average dimension of a pit/septic tank was 1.86 m long x 1.5 m wide x 2.16 m high. Stones were used as lining of the pits in Bokod because the soil was porous. No lining was used in Kapangan because the soil is clayish and hard. Two or more bags of cement were used as a base for the toilet bowl (ceramic) and was installed either directly above the septic tank or at the side. The pipe connecting the bowl and the septic tank if connected at the side was iron steel or bamboo. There were 50 model lat-rines, 30 were distributed and installed at Kapangan and 20 units at Bokod. Two units were installed to a barangay in both municipalities. The general attitude of the villagers before they accept and adopt a technology is "wait and see". The recipients of the model toilets cooperated very well and wore willing to disseminate this technology to the other villagers. The actual average total cost of a unit toilet bowl plus the maintenance kit (brush, rubber pump, plastic pail) and a bag of coment was P425.00. For this very low cost, a farmer can sell a bag of potatoes or a big basket of vegetables, and he can have a docent and sanitary toilet.

(b) Monitoring the Use of Latrines. The rural munici-pal physicians, the sanitary inspectors, and the mid-wives continue monitoring the proper usage and main-tenance of the latrines.

5) Health Strategies to Fromote Community Acceptance and Maintenance of the Latrines
(a) Health Education Module Development. The health education module is composed of the objective, situa-tional analysis, strategies, maintenance procedure. evaluation, and expected outcome. The objective is to promote community acceptance and maintenance of the latrine. Situational analysis on improper dis-posal of human excreta and sewage, prevalence of com-municable diseases, high percentage of unsanitary toilets, and the adverse and economic consequences of poor health and sanitation are imperative reasons to educate the villagers on health and sanitation. The strategies were lectures and visits to the areas. Advantages of having a toilet, working well with other people to put up a toilet and other works in the barangays are some strategies. Implementation by the actual installation of the model latrines followed by maintenance procedure and evaluation with this module as the expected outcome.
(b) Maintenance of Latrines. The maintenance procedures included the following:
1. keep surrounding of toilet clean and dry. See to it that there is no water clogging or scat-tered garbage or feces inside or outside the toilet house;
2. the toilet house should be in good repair;
3. keep the toilet flooring and bowl always clean and see to it that no feces can be seen or adhering after it is used;
4. have water on a jar or pail always ready for flushing the latrine and for washing the hands of the users;
5. broom or brush for cleaning the latrine daily should be available inside the toilet house; and
6. avoid using sticks, stones, or any hard objects that may clog the toilet bowl.

(c) Evaluation aspect
1. On use and maintenance. The Ibalois in Bokod wash their hands and flush the toilet after using it. Likewine, the Kankann-eyn in Kapangan do wash their hands and flush the toilet after using it. Both use the intrinos and maintained them well.
2. On cultural practices and beliefs. Except for a very few recipients of the model intrines both Kankana-eys and Ibalois don't believe nor prac-tice anymore cultural rituals and beliefs. A particular belief that they still adhere to however, is that they suffer the same illness caused by unsanitary conditions even if they have toilet.
3. On behavioral change. The community willingness to disseminate proper use and maintenance of the model latrines is a sign that accept and enjoy comfortable living in a sanitary environment. The neighbors help one another in constructing and installing their toilets.

(d) Expected Outcome
The recipients are very satisfied with the research project as they were able to identify, select, and accept the model intrinos. The lecturen on the advantagen, installation, and proper use and maintenance of the letrines wore highly received. The research investigators and staff did an excellent job in their lectures and demonstrations to convince the target communities to feel responsible in dinnominating this essential commitment. As evidence of cooporation, and acceptance of the project, the mayors of the two municipalities wrote letters of appreciation to the IDRC through the municipal investigator for having selected their municipalities as the recipients of the noble research project.

From the findings of the research project, the following are the conclusions:
1. The acquired knowledge of the advantages of having a toilet insured the correct identification and selection of the type of latrine and its proper usage. The water seal sit-type latrine made of ceramins was preferred by the respondents.
2. The factors of socio-economic, environmental and topography, cultural rituals and beliefs greatly influenced the community acceptance of the model lat-trines. Socio-economic conditions were significantly related to the Kankana-eys' acceptance of the type of model latrines on evidences of the results of (C) and X2) which were greater than the tabled values at 5 and 1% levels of significance. On the other hand, socio-economic conditions were not significantly related to the Ibalois acceptance of the type of model latrines.

Cultural rituals and beliefs were significant influences on the proper usage of latrines among both groups of respondents with the result of (C) and (x²) which were greater than the tabled values at 5 and 1% levels of significance.

Environmental conditions on refuse disposal, infestation breeding places, source of water due to topography were factors that impede proper usage of the latrines.

3. The "wait and see" attitude of the respondent manifested itself when the demonstrations on the cons-truction and installation of the model latrines have been conducted. There was cooperation of the reci-pients when they gave labor and indigenous materials as their counterpart. A household can finish the work for three weeks and spends P425.00 for a decent and sanitary toilet.

4. With continuous health education strategies to be lectured by the Ministry of Health through the rural municipal physician, sanitary inspector, and midwives the community acceptance and maintenance of latrines would be a success. More households would replicate this model latrines as shown in the evaluations no significant differences were obtained for the F-test. The respondents agreed to almost all the items on evaluation in the use and maintenance of latrines, cultural practices and beliefs, and behavioral changes.

Thesis (Master of Science in Rural Development)

Includes appendices and bibliographical references